Asked by an American reporter if he had favored Trump in the election, Putin said that he had, because of Trump’s expressed desire for better relations with Russia. When questioned about whether Russia had kompromat (compromising information) on Trump, Putin pointed to the St. Petersburg Economic Forum and talked about the impossibility of obtaining compromising material on each of the more than 500 “high-ranking, high-level” American businessmen said to have attended the conference. He also said that he had been unaware of Trump’s presence in Moscow during an earlier visit. Some press accounts of his answer, however, pointed out that Putin did not explicitly deny having Trump-related kompromat. The Russian press trumpeted the summit as a huge success for Putin. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov described the outcome of the summit as “better than super.” The response in the United States was mostly shock, and a number of Republicans joined Democrats in strongly condemning Trump’s performance.

After Putin kept Trump waiting by arriving late, the two met alone (with only translators present) for some two hours and then more briefly in the presence of advisers. In the press conference that followed, Putin once again denied any Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Trump then sent shock waves when, in response to a reporter’s question, he indicated that he trusted Putin’s denial more than the conclusions of his own intelligence organizations, which only days earlier had resulted in the U.S. Department of Justice ’s indictment of 12 Russian intelligence agents for their meddling in the election. Moreover, given the opportunity to condemn transgressive Russian actions, Trump instead cast blame on the United States for its strained relationship with Russia. Trump also warmed to Putin’s offer to allow U.S. investigators to interview the Russian agents in return for Russian access to Americans of interest in Russian investigations.

On July 16, 2018, fresh from the success of Russia’s well-received hosting of the World Cup football championship, Putin held a summit meeting in Helsinki with Trump. The two had conducted discussions at the Group of 20 (G20) summit in Hamburg , Germany , and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation gathering in Da Nang , Vietnam , in 2017, but the encounter in Finland marked their first formal one-on-one meeting. It came at the end of Trump’s trip to Europe in which he had ruffled relations with the United States’ traditional European allies. Although some observers questioned whether Trump would be able to hold his own in discussions with a counterpart as seasoned and cagey as Putin, Trump said that he thought his meeting with Putin would be the “easiest” of his trip.

The diplomatic row had not abated when Russians went to the polls on March 18, 2018. The date was, not coincidentally, the fourth anniversary of Russia’s forcible annexation of the Ukrainian autonomous republic of Crimea, an event that marked a spike in Putin’s domestic popularity. As expected, Putin claimed an overwhelming majority of the vote in an election that independent monitoring agency Golos characterized as being rife with irregularities. Putin had wished for a higher turnout than in his 2012 election victory, and ballot stuffing was observed in numerous locations. Putin’s campaign characterized the result as an “incredible victory.”

As the March 2018 presidential election approached, it seemed all but certain that Putin would win a fourth presidential term by a wide margin. Navalny , the face of the opposition, was barred from running, and the Communist candidate, Pavel Grudinin, faced incessant criticism from the state-run media. Two weeks before the election, Putin became the focus of a major international incident when Sergei Skripal , a former Russian intelligence officer who was convicted of spying for Britain only to be released to the United Kingdom as part of a prisoner swap, was found unconscious with his daughter in Salisbury, England. Investigators alleged that the pair had been exposed to Novichok , a complex nerve agent developed by the Soviets. British officials accused Putin of having ordered the attack, and British Prime Minister Theresa May expelled nearly two dozen Russian intelligence operatives who had been working in Britain under diplomatic cover.

On August 20 Navalny became seriously ill on a flight from the Siberian city of Tomsk , and tests later confirmed that he had been exposed to Novichok. Navalny was flown to Germany to recover, and the following month opposition candidates performed surprisingly well in local elections held in the area where Navalny had been campaigning. The Kremlin denied involvement in the poisoning, but such protestations had become increasingly implausible, as the attack on Navalny represented only the most recent in a long series of attempts on the lives of Putin’s critics.

In January 2020 Putin announced his intention to modify the Russian constitution in a way that would scrap term limits for presidents, paving the way for him to remain in office indefinitely. Medvedev promptly resigned as prime minister, stating that a new government would give Putin “the opportunity to make the decisions he needs to make.” The proposed constitutional changes were speedily approved by the Russian legislature, but Putin scheduled a national referendum on the matter, a move that critics described as little more than political theater. That vote was originally scheduled for April, but it was postponed until July due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Unsurprisingly, the result was an overwhelming affirmation of Putin’s agenda, but opposition groups noted that there was no independent monitoring of the election process.

Although Russia remained something of a pariah on the global stage—its athletes were barred from international competition due to a massive state-sponsored doping scheme, it was suspended indefinitely from the G8 , and it was the target of a raft of economic sanctions—Putin’s personal stature was undiminished. With Britain struggling to conclude an exit deal with the European Union, German Chancellor Angela Merkel in the twilight of her tenure as de facto leader of Europe, and governments in Poland and Hungary exhibiting increasingly authoritarian practices, Putin faced a West that seemed unable to find its direction. Against this backdrop, he boasted of a robust expansion of Russian military power, particularly in the field of hypersonic weapons. Speaking about the historic arms race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union , in December 2019 Putin remarked, “Today, we have a situation that is unique in modern history: they’re trying to catch up to us.”

Russia-Ukraine War; Vladimir Putin Russian Pres. Vladimir Putin announcing the beginning of a “special military operation” against Ukraine, February 24, 2022. (more)

In late 2021 Putin ordered a massive buildup of Russian forces along the Ukrainian border; additional units were dispatched to Belarus, ostensibly to engage in joint exercises with the Belarusian military. Western governments raised concerns about what appeared to be an imminent Russian invasion, but Putin denied that he had any such plans. By February 2022 as many as 190,000 Russian troops were poised to strike into Ukraine from forward bases in Russia, Russian-occupied Crimea, Belarus, and the Russian-backed separatist enclave of Transdniestria in Moldova. In addition, amphibious units were deployed to the Black Sea under the guise of previously scheduled naval exercises. On February 21 Putin recognized the independence of the self-proclaimed people’s republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, effectively voiding the 2015 Minsk peace agreement. In the early morning hours of February 24 Putin announced the beginning of a “special military operation,” and explosions could be heard in cities across Ukraine. Ukrainian Pres. Volodymyr Zelensky said that his country would defend itself, and Western leaders condemned the unprovoked attack, promising swift and severe sanctions against Russia.

Russia-Ukraine War A Russian armored column moving on a highway between the Ukrainian cities of Mariupol and Donetsk, March 23, 2002. The “Z” displayed on the vehicles became a symbol of Russian aggression. (more)

Putin and his military advisers had assumed that the Russian invasion of Ukraine would conclude in a matter of days with the toppling of the democratically elected government in Kyiv and the installation of a pro-Moscow regime. Almost from the outset, however, deficiencies in Russia’s military became apparent, and advances along numerous axes stalled in the face of determined Ukrainian resistance. Colossal logistical failures hampered the attack on Kyiv, and an attempted encirclement of Kharkiv faltered, despite that city’s close proximity (20 miles [32 km]) to the Russian border. By the end of March Russian troops had been driven back from Kyiv, and the following month Ukrainian forces sank the missile cruiser Moskva, the flagship of Russia’s Black Sea Fleet.

In liberated areas there was widespread evidence of war crimes committed by Russian soldiers. Reports of looting and sexual violence were commonplace, and in cities such as Bucha, Izyum, and Kherson the bodies of hundreds of civilians were found piled in mass graves. In Mariupol as many as 600 people were killed when a Russian air strike targeted a theater that had been serving as the city’s main bomb shelter. The building held no military value, and the word “CHILDREN” was painted on the pavement outside in massive Cyrillic letters that were visible in satellite imagery. As battlefield victories became more elusive and Ukraine began reclaiming territory, Russian commanders stepped up their attacks on civilian infrastructure in a clear violation of the Geneva Conventions. When Russian troops finally captured Mariupol after a three-month siege, the port city had been reduced to a smoking ruin.

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If Putin had hoped to divide the West and reassert Russia’s dominance in the “near abroad” countries of the former Soviet Union, the plan backfired spectacularly. On June 23 the European Union formally granted candidate status to Ukraine, thus completing a narrative arc that had begun with the overthrow of the pro-Russian Yanukovych government in 2014. NATO was energized by the clear threat to Europe’s collective security, and Finland and Sweden, two countries with a long history of neutrality, signed accession treaties to the alliance on July 5. Poland, which historically had a difficult relationship with its neighbor to the east, welcomed Ukrainian refugees by the millions. The United States sent billions of dollars in military aid to Ukraine, and Western leaders traveled to Kyiv to demonstrate their continued support for Zelensky and Ukraine. Putin, conversely, was increasingly isolated as Russia became the most heavily economically sanctioned country in history.

Yevgeny Prigozhin during the Russia-Ukraine War Wagner Group founder Yevgeny Prigozhin attending the funeral of a Wagner mercenary who was killed fighting in Ukraine, December 2022. (more)

As his war effort foundered, Putin shuffled commanders and finally outsourced a portion of the fighting to Yevgeny Prigozhin and his Wagner Group mercenary company. Prigozhin filled Wagner’s ranks with inmates recruited from Russia’s prisons, and Prigozhin’s convict army was soon carrying out sanguinary attacks in the Donbas. Staggering losses from Ukrainian counteroffensives led Putin to declare a “partial mobilization” of 300,000 troops on September 21. Although defense officials had pledged that only combat veterans would be called up, there was widespread evidence that men with no military experience were being drafted. Protests erupted across Russia, and hundreds of thousands of military-age men fled the country. Poorly equipped and given virtually no training, some of these conscripts were killed in action within two weeks of receiving their draft notices. Even Putin’s most enthusiastic supporters in state media voiced their disapproval of the partial mobilization, but doing so carried a very real risk. Putin had passed a law making criticism of the war effort a crime that carried a penalty of up to 15 years in prison, and officials and oligarchs who drew Putin’s ire often suffered suspicious deaths, with a wholly improbable number falling from windows. After a year of war, Russia’s international standing was greatly diminished, its economy was reeling from sanctions, and its leader appeared more vulnerable than at any previous time in his nearly quarter century in power.

Putin’s mobilization did little to change the military situation in Ukraine, and Russia’s winter and spring offensives went nowhere. Wagner forces intensified their focus on the city of Bakhmut in an effort to deliver some kind of victory for the Kremlin. For months, poorly equipped Wagner convict troops conducted bloody human wave attacks while trying to encircle Ukrainian forces, but Ukrainian defenses held. In May 2023 the Ukrainians withdrew from the ruins of Bakhmut, and Prigozhin declared victory; it was estimated that Russian casualties in the battle exceeded 100,000, with more than 20,000 killed in action. Still, it was Russia’s first battlefield success in nearly a year, and Prigozhin’s stock rose accordingly.

Wagner Group tank in Rostov-on-Don A Wagner Group T-72 tank parked in front of the Southern Military District headquarters in Rostov-on-Don, Russia, June 24, 2023. (more)

Infighting between Prigozhin and the Russian military establishment reached a dramatic climax in late June 2023, when Prigozhin “declared war” on the Russian defense ministry and crossed back into Russia at the head of an armored column composed of some 25,000 Wagner mercenaries. On June 24 the Wagner force downed more than half a dozen Russian aircraft and proceeded to occupy the Southern Military District headquarters in Rostov-on-Don. Prigozhin’s column then headed north, encountering no meaningful resistance as it passed through Voronezh, before it finally halted just 120 miles (roughly 200 km) south of Moscow. Prigozhin then abruptly ordered his men to return to their positions in Ukraine while Belarusian Pres. Alexander Lukashenko announced that he had brokered an agreement between Prigozhin and the Kremlin. In exchange for Wagner halting its mutiny, the mercenaries would be granted amnesty and offered military contracts; Prigozhin would live in exile in Belarus.

Putin’s whereabouts during the rebellion were subject to much speculation, as his presidential jet was tracked leaving Moscow while Prigozhin was still on the march. A spokesperson insisted that Putin was “working at the Kremlin,” but what is beyond dispute is that Putin kept a surprisingly low profile during one of the most tumultuous days in recent Russian history. His public statements, when they finally did come, appeared desperate and contradictory. He excoriated Prigozhin as a traitor, but Putin’s security services made no immediate move to apprehend him. He praised the Wagner fighters as patriots, despite the fact that the mercenaries had killed dozens of Russian service members during their advance on Moscow. Putin also lauded the Russian army for preventing “a civil war,” even though the regular Russian military appeared wholly unequipped to halt the rebellion. On August 23, almost exactly two months after the Wagner rebellion, Prigozhin’s business jet crashed north of Moscow, and Wagner-affiliated social media channels immediately claimed that the aircraft had been downed by Russian air defenses. Given the regularity with which Putin’s opponents met violent ends, Russian state involvement in Prigozhin’s death seemed an obvious conclusion. The Kremlin was quick to dismiss this allegation as an “absolute lie,” and Putin later suggested that the plane had been brought down by the accidental detonation of hand grenades that had been on board. No official evidence was provided to support this claim.

While Prigozhin temporarily presented himself as the greatest threat to Putin’s rule, Navalny had not escaped the Kremlin’s notice. On August 4, 2023, a Moscow court sentenced him to an additional 19 years in prison on the charge of extremism for activities connected to his anti-corruption organization. In early December Navalny was rendered incommunicado, and his legal team could not determine his whereabouts for more than two weeks. It was eventually determined that he had been transferred from a prison in Vladimir oblast (region), east of Moscow, to IK-3, a maximum-security penal colony in Kharp, north of the Arctic Circle. Dubbed “Polar Wolf” and located on the site of one of Joseph Stalin’s Gulag forced labor camps, IK-3 was widely regarded as one of the harshest facilities in the Russian prison system. Navalny continued to post on social media from confinement, and on February 1, 2024, he called on his supporters to protest the March 2024 presidential election—a contest in which Putin’s victory was seen as all but guaranteed—by casting their votes at noon. As the election results were regarded as a foregone conclusion, and any obvious act of dissent could result in imprisonment, Navalny suggested that so many people arriving to the polls at the same time could send a message to the Kremlin without putting any individual at risk. On February 16 Russian prison officials announced that Navalny had died in custody. Western leaders responded with outrage, with U.S. Pres. Joe Biden stating bluntly, “Putin is responsible for Navalny’s death.” The Kremlin rejected these accusations, and the chair of the State Duma implausibly placed the blame on Zelensky and a collection of NATO leaders.

Russia’s heavily managed 2024 presidential election reached its predictable conclusion on March 17 with a landslide victory for Putin. No credible opposition figures were allowed to run; Boris Nadezhdin, a late emerging anti-war candidate, was hastily banned by the Russian electoral commission in February. Massive crowds descended on polling places at 12:00 pm on the final day of the election, seemingly in support of the “noon against Putin” demonstration that Navalny had proposed before his death. Throughout the occupied regions of Ukraine, heavily armed Russian troops accompanied poll workers to compel participation in the election.

World Trade Organization (WTO) , international organization established to supervise and liberalize world trade. The WTO is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was created in 1947 in the expectation that it would soon be replaced by a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) to be called the International Trade Organization (ITO). Although the ITO never materialized, the GATT proved remarkably successful in liberalizing world trade over the next five decades. By the late 1980s there were calls for a stronger multilateral organization to monitor trade and resolve trade disputes. Following the completion of the Uruguay Round (1986–94) of multilateral trade negotiations, the WTO began operations on January 1, 1995.

Origins

The ITO was initially envisaged, along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, as one of the key pillars of post-World War II reconstruction and economic development. In Havana in 1948, the UN Conference on Trade and Employment concluded a draft charter for the ITO, known as the Havana Charter, which would have created extensive rules governing trade, investment, services, and business and employment practices. However, the United States failed to ratify the agreement. Meanwhile, an agreement to phase out the use of import quotas and to reduce tariffs on merchandise trade, negotiated by 23 countries in Geneva in 1947, came into force as the GATT on January 1, 1948.

Although the GATT was expected to be provisional, it was the only major agreement governing international trade until the creation of the WTO. The GATT system evolved over 47 years to become a de facto global trade organization that eventually involved approximately 130 countries. Through various negotiating rounds, the GATT was extended or modified by numerous supplementary codes and arrangements, interpretations, waivers, reports by dispute-settlement panels, and decisions of its council.

During negotiations ending in 1994, the original GATT and all changes to it introduced prior to the Uruguay Round were renamed GATT 1947. This set of agreements was distinguished from GATT 1994, which comprises the modifications and clarifications negotiated during the Uruguay Round (referred to as “Understandings”) plus a dozen other multilateral agreements on merchandise trade. GATT 1994 became an integral part of the agreement that established the WTO. Other core components include the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), which attempted to supervise and liberalize trade; the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which sought to improve protection of intellectual property across borders; the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes, which established rules for resolving conflicts between members; the Trade Policy Review Mechanism, which documented national trade policies and assessed their conformity with WTO rules; and four plurilateral agreements, signed by only a subset of the WTO membership, on civil aircraft, government procurement, dairy products, and bovine meat (though the latter two were terminated at the end of 1997 with the creation of related WTO committees). These agreements were signed in Marrakech, Morocco, in April 1994, and, following their ratification, the contracting parties to the GATT treaty became charter members of the WTO. By the 2020s the WTO had more than 160 members.